Organic Chemistry,

9^th Edition L. G. Wade, Jr.

Chapter 7 Lecture

Structure and Synthesis of Alkenes; Elimination

Introduction

• Alkenes are hydrocarbons with carbon– carbon double bonds.
• Alkenes are also called olefins, meaning “oilforming gas.”
• The functional group of alkenes is the carbon– carbon double bond, which gives this group its reactivity.

Orbital Description

• Sigma bonds around the double-bonded carbon are sp² hybridized.
• Angles are approximately 120º and the molecular geometry is trigonal planar.
• Unhybridized p orbitals with one electron will overlap, forming the double bond (pi bond).

Bond Lengths and Angles

• sp² hybrid orbitals have more s character than the sp³ hybrid orbitals.
• Pi overlap brings carbon atoms closer, shortening the C—C bond from 1.54 Å in alkanes down to 1.33 Å in alkenes.

Pi Bonding in Ethylene

• The pi bond in ethylene is formed by overlap of the unhybridized p orbitals of the sp² hybrid carbon atoms.
• Each carbon has one unpaired electron in the p orbital.
• This overlap requires the two ends of the molecule to be coplanar.

Cis-Trans Interconversion

• Cis and trans isomers cannot be interconverted.
• No rotation around the carbon–carbon bond is possible without breaking the pi bond (264 kJ/mole).

Elements of Unsaturation

• Unsaturation: A structural element that decreases the number of hydrogens in the molecule by two.
• Also called index of hydrogen deficiency.
• Double bonds and rings are elements of unsaturation.

IUPAC Nomenclature

• Find the longest continuous carbon chain that includes the double-bonded carbons.
• Ending –ane changes to –ene.
• Number the chain so that the double bond has the lowest possible number.
• In a ring, the double bond is assumed to be between carbon 1 and carbon 2.

IUPAC and New IUPAC

Ring Nomenclature

In a ring, the double bond is assumed to be between carbon 1 and carbon 2.

C

H

3

2

3

CH

3

1

Multiple Double Bonds

• Give the double bonds the lowest numbers possible.
• Use di-, tri-, tetra– before the ending -ene to

specify how many double bonds are present.

Cis-Trans Isomers

• Also called geometric isomerism.
• Similar groups on the same side of the double bond of an alkene is called cis.
• Similar groups on the opposite sides of the double bond of an alkene is called trans.
• Not all alkenes show cis-trans isomerism.

Cyclic Compounds

• Trans cycloalkenes are not stable unless the ring has at least eight carbons.
• All cycloalkenes are assumed to be cis unless otherwise specifically named trans.

E–Z Nomenclature

• Use the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog rules to assign priorities to groups attached to each carbon in the double bond.
• If high-priority groups are on the same side, the name is Z (for zusammen).
• If high-priority groups are on opposite sides, the name is E (for entgegen).

Example

• Assign priority to the substituents according to their atomic number (1 is highest priority).

1

2

1

2

• If the highest priority groups are on opposite sides, the isomer is E.

side, the isomer is Z.

Cyclic Stereoisomers

• Double bonds outside the ring can show stereoisomerism.

Stereochemistry in Dienes

• If there is more than one double bond in the molecule, the stereochemistry of all the double bonds should be specified.

Heat of Hydrogenation

• Combustion of an alkene and hydrogenation of an alkene can provide valuable data as to the stability of the double bond.
• The more substituted the double bond, the lower its heat of hydrogenation.

Relative Stabilities

Heats of hydrogenation are usually exothermic. A larger

amount of heat given off implies

a less stable alkene, because the less stable alkene starts from a higher potential energy.

Substituent Effects

• The isomer with the more substituted double bond has a larger angular separation between the bulky alkyl groups.

Disubstituted Isomers

• Stability: cis < geminal < trans isomer
• The less stable isomer has a higher exothermic heat of hydrogenation.

Cycloalkenes

• A ring makes a major difference only if there is ring strain, either because of a small ring or because of a trans double bond.
• Rings that are five-membered or larger can easily accommodate double bonds, and these cycloalkenes react much like straight-chain alkenes.

Cyclopropene

• Cyclopropene has bond angles of about 60°, compressing the bond angles of the carbon–carbon double bond to half their usual value of 120°.
• The double bond in cyclopropene is highly strained.

Stability of Cycloalkenes

• The cis isomer is more stable than trans in small cycloalkenes.
• Small rings have additional ring strain.
• Must have at least eight carbons to form a stable trans double bond.
• For cyclodecene (and larger), the trans double bond is almost as stable as the cis.

Bredt’s Rule

• A bridged bicyclic compound cannot have a double bond at a bridgehead position unless one of the rings contains at least eight carbon atoms.

Solved Problem

Which of the following alkenes are stable?

SOLUTION:

Compound (a) is stable. Although the double bond is at a bridgehead, it is not a bridged bicyclic system. The trans double bond is in a ten-membered ring.

Compound (b) is a Bredt’s rule violation and is not stable. The largest ring contains six carbon atoms, and the trans double bond cannot be stable in this bridgehead position.

Compound (c) (norbornene) is stable. The (cis) double bond is not at a

bridgehead carbon. Compound (d) is stable. Although the double bond is at the bridgehead of a bridged bicyclic system, there is an eight-membered ring to accommodate the trans double bond.

Chapter 7 28

Physical Properties of Alkenes

• Low boiling points, increasing with mass.
• Branched alkenes have lower boiling points.
• Less dense than water.
• Slightly polar:
  • Pi bond is polarizable, so instantaneous dipole– dipole interactions occur.
  • Alkyl groups are electron-donating toward the pi bond, so may have a small dipole moment.

Polarity and Dipole Moments of Alkenes

• Cis alkenes have a greater dipole moment than trans alkenes, so they will be slightly polar.
• The boiling point of cis alkenes will be higher than the trans alkenes.

Alkene Synthesis Overview

• E2 dehydrohalogenation (-HX)
• E1 dehydrohalogenation (-HX)
• Dehalogenation of vicinal dibromides (-X₂)
• Dehydration of alcohols (-H₂O)

Dehydrohalogenation by the E2

Mechanism

• A strong base abstracts H⁺ as a double bond forms and the X^– leaves from the adjacent carbon atom.
• Tertiary and hindered secondary alkyl halides give alkenes in good yields.
• Tertiary halides are the best E2 substrates because they are prone to elimination and cannot undergo S_N2 substitution.

Bulky Bases for E2 Reactions

• If the substrate is prone to substitution, a bulky base can minimize the amount of substitution.
• Large alkyl groups on a bulky base hinder its approach to attack a carbon atom (substitution), yet it can easily abstract a proton (elimination).

Hofmann Product

Bulky bases, such as potassium tert-butoxide, abstract the least hindered H⁺,giving the less substituted alkene as the major product (Hofmann product).

E2 Reactions Are Stereospecific

• Depending on the stereochemistry of the alkyl halide, the E2 elimination may produce only the cis or only the trans isomer.
• The geometry of the product will depend on the anticoplanar relationship between the proton and the leaving group.

Stereochemistry of E2 Elimination

• Most E2 reactions go through an anticoplanar transition state.
• This geometry is most apparent if we view the reaction with the alkyl halide in a Newman projection.

Solved Problem

Show that the dehalogenation of 2,3-dibromobutane by iodide ion is stereospecific by showing that the two diastereomers of the starting material give different diastereomers of the product.

SOLUTION:

Rotating meso-2,3-dibromobutane into a conformation where the bromine atoms are anti and coplanar, we find that the product will be trans-2-butene. A similar conformation of either enantiomer of the (±) diastereomer shows that the product will be cis-2-butene. (Hint: Your models will be helpful.)

Chapter 7 38

E2 Reactions on Cyclohexanes

• An anti-coplanar conformation (180°) can only be achieved when both the hydrogen and the halogen occupy axial positions.
• The chair must flip to the conformation with the axial halide in order for the elimination to take place.

Solved Problem

Explain why the following deuterated 1-bromo-2-methylcyclohexane undergoes dehydrohalogenation by the E2 mechanism, to give only the indicated product. Two other alkenes are not observed.

SOLUTION:

In an E2 elimination, the hydrogen atom and the leaving group must have a trans-diaxial relationship. In this compound, only one hydrogen atom—the deuterium—is trans to the bromine atom. When the bromine atom is axial, the adjacent deuterium is also axial, providing a trans-diaxial arrangement.

Chapter 7 41

Debromination of Vicinal

Dibromides

• Vicinal dibromides are converted to alkenes by reduction with iodide ion in acetone.
• Not an important reaction, but the mechanism is similar to the E2 dehydrohalogenation reaction.

E1 Elimination Mechanism

• Tertiary and secondary alkyl halides:

3º > 2º

• Carbocation intermediate.
• Rearrangements are possible.
• Weak nucleophiles such as water or alcohols.
• Usually have S_N1 products, too, since the solvent can

attack the carbocation directly.

Dehydration of Alcohols

• Use concentrated H₂SO₄ or H₃PO₄ to shift the equilibrium and increase the yield of the reaction.
• E1 mechanism.
• Rearrangements are common.
• Reaction obeys Zaitsev’s rule.

Dehydration Mechanism: E1

Step 1: Protonation of the hydroxyl group (fast equilibrium).

Step 2: Ionization to a carbocation (slow; rate limiting).

Step 3: Deprotonation to give the alkene (fast).

Organic Chemistry,

9^th Edition L. G. Wade, Jr.

Chapter 7 Lecture

Structure and Synthesis of Alkenes; Elimination

Introduction

• Alkenes are hydrocarbons with carbon– carbon double bonds.
• Alkenes are also called olefins, meaning “oilforming gas.”
• The functional group of alkenes is the carbon– carbon double bond, which gives this group its reactivity.

Orbital Description

• Sigma bonds around the double-bonded carbon are sp² hybridized.
• Angles are approximately 120º and the molecular geometry is trigonal planar.
• Unhybridized p orbitals with one electron will overlap, forming the double bond (pi bond).

Bond Lengths and Angles

• sp² hybrid orbitals have more s character than the sp³ hybrid orbitals.
• Pi overlap brings carbon atoms closer, shortening the C—C bond from 1.54 Å in alkanes down to 1.33 Å in alkenes.

Pi Bonding in Ethylene

• The pi bond in ethylene is formed by overlap of the unhybridized p orbitals of the sp² hybrid carbon atoms.
• Each carbon has one unpaired electron in the p orbital.
• This overlap requires the two ends of the molecule to be coplanar.

Cis-Trans Interconversion

• Cis and trans isomers cannot be interconverted.
• No rotation around the carbon–carbon bond is possible without breaking the pi bond (264 kJ/mole).

Elements of Unsaturation

• Unsaturation: A structural element that decreases the number of hydrogens in the molecule by two.
• Also called index of hydrogen deficiency.
• Double bonds and rings are elements of unsaturation.

IUPAC Nomenclature

• Find the longest continuous carbon chain that includes the double-bonded carbons.
• Ending –ane changes to –ene.
• Number the chain so that the double bond has the lowest possible number.
• In a ring, the double bond is assumed to be between carbon 1 and carbon 2.

IUPAC and New IUPAC

Ring Nomenclature

In a ring, the double bond is assumed to be between carbon 1 and carbon 2.

C

H

3

2

3

CH

3

1

Multiple Double Bonds

• Give the double bonds the lowest numbers possible.
• Use di-, tri-, tetra– before the ending -ene to

specify how many double bonds are present.

Cis-Trans Isomers

• Also called geometric isomerism.
• Similar groups on the same side of the double bond of an alkene is called cis.
• Similar groups on the opposite sides of the double bond of an alkene is called trans.
• Not all alkenes show cis-trans isomerism.

Cyclic Compounds

• Trans cycloalkenes are not stable unless the ring has at least eight carbons.
• All cycloalkenes are assumed to be cis unless otherwise specifically named trans.

E–Z Nomenclature

• Use the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog rules to assign priorities to groups attached to each carbon in the double bond.
• If high-priority groups are on the same side, the name is Z (for zusammen).
• If high-priority groups are on opposite sides, the name is E (for entgegen).

Example

• Assign priority to the substituents according to their atomic number (1 is highest priority).

1

2

1

2

• If the highest priority groups are on opposite sides, the isomer is E.

side, the isomer is Z.

Cyclic Stereoisomers

• Double bonds outside the ring can show stereoisomerism.

Stereochemistry in Dienes

• If there is more than one double bond in the molecule, the stereochemistry of all the double bonds should be specified.

Heat of Hydrogenation

• Combustion of an alkene and hydrogenation of an alkene can provide valuable data as to the stability of the double bond.
• The more substituted the double bond, the lower its heat of hydrogenation.

Relative Stabilities

Heats of hydrogenation are usually exothermic. A larger

amount of heat given off implies

a less stable alkene, because the less stable alkene starts from a higher potential energy.

Substituent Effects

• The isomer with the more substituted double bond has a larger angular separation between the bulky alkyl groups.

Disubstituted Isomers

• Stability: cis < geminal < trans isomer
• The less stable isomer has a higher exothermic heat of hydrogenation.

Cycloalkenes

• A ring makes a major difference only if there is ring strain, either because of a small ring or because of a trans double bond.
• Rings that are five-membered or larger can easily accommodate double bonds, and these cycloalkenes react much like straight-chain alkenes.

Cyclopropene

• Cyclopropene has bond angles of about 60°, compressing the bond angles of the carbon–carbon double bond to half their usual value of 120°.
• The double bond in cyclopropene is highly strained.

Stability of Cycloalkenes

• The cis isomer is more stable than trans in small cycloalkenes.
• Small rings have additional ring strain.
• Must have at least eight carbons to form a stable trans double bond.
• For cyclodecene (and larger), the trans double bond is almost as stable as the cis.

Bredt’s Rule

• A bridged bicyclic compound cannot have a double bond at a bridgehead position unless one of the rings contains at least eight carbon atoms.

Solved Problem

Which of the following alkenes are stable?

SOLUTION:

Compound (a) is stable. Although the double bond is at a bridgehead, it is not a bridged bicyclic system. The trans double bond is in a ten-membered ring.

Compound (b) is a Bredt’s rule violation and is not stable. The largest ring contains six carbon atoms, and the trans double bond cannot be stable in this bridgehead position.

Compound (c) (norbornene) is stable. The (cis) double bond is not at a

bridgehead carbon. Compound (d) is stable. Although the double bond is at the bridgehead of a bridged bicyclic system, there is an eight-membered ring to accommodate the trans double bond.

Chapter 7 28

Physical Properties of Alkenes

• Low boiling points, increasing with mass.
• Branched alkenes have lower boiling points.
• Less dense than water.
• Slightly polar:
  • Pi bond is polarizable, so instantaneous dipole– dipole interactions occur.
  • Alkyl groups are electron-donating toward the pi bond, so may have a small dipole moment.

Polarity and Dipole Moments of Alkenes

• Cis alkenes have a greater dipole moment than trans alkenes, so they will be slightly polar.
• The boiling point of cis alkenes will be higher than the trans alkenes.

Alkene Synthesis Overview

• E2 dehydrohalogenation (-HX)
• E1 dehydrohalogenation (-HX)
• Dehalogenation of vicinal dibromides (-X₂)
• Dehydration of alcohols (-H₂O)

Dehydrohalogenation by the E2

Mechanism

• A strong base abstracts H⁺ as a double bond forms and the X^– leaves from the adjacent carbon atom.
• Tertiary and hindered secondary alkyl halides give alkenes in good yields.
• Tertiary halides are the best E2 substrates because they are prone to elimination and cannot undergo S_N2 substitution.

Bulky Bases for E2 Reactions

• If the substrate is prone to substitution, a bulky base can minimize the amount of substitution.
• Large alkyl groups on a bulky base hinder its approach to attack a carbon atom (substitution), yet it can easily abstract a proton (elimination).

Hofmann Product

Bulky bases, such as potassium tert-butoxide, abstract the least hindered H⁺,giving the less substituted alkene as the major product (Hofmann product).

E2 Reactions Are Stereospecific

• Depending on the stereochemistry of the alkyl halide, the E2 elimination may produce only the cis or only the trans isomer.
• The geometry of the product will depend on the anticoplanar relationship between the proton and the leaving group.

Stereochemistry of E2 Elimination

• Most E2 reactions go through an anticoplanar transition state.
• This geometry is most apparent if we view the reaction with the alkyl halide in a Newman projection.

Solved Problem

Show that the dehalogenation of 2,3-dibromobutane by iodide ion is stereospecific by showing that the two diastereomers of the starting material give different diastereomers of the product.

SOLUTION:

Rotating meso-2,3-dibromobutane into a conformation where the bromine atoms are anti and coplanar, we find that the product will be trans-2-butene. A similar conformation of either enantiomer of the (±) diastereomer shows that the product will be cis-2-butene. (Hint: Your models will be helpful.)

Chapter 7 38

E2 Reactions on Cyclohexanes

• An anti-coplanar conformation (180°) can only be achieved when both the hydrogen and the halogen occupy axial positions.
• The chair must flip to the conformation with the axial halide in order for the elimination to take place.

Solved Problem

Explain why the following deuterated 1-bromo-2-methylcyclohexane undergoes dehydrohalogenation by the E2 mechanism, to give only the indicated product. Two other alkenes are not observed.

SOLUTION:

In an E2 elimination, the hydrogen atom and the leaving group must have a trans-diaxial relationship. In this compound, only one hydrogen atom—the deuterium—is trans to the bromine atom. When the bromine atom is axial, the adjacent deuterium is also axial, providing a trans-diaxial arrangement.

Chapter 7 41

Debromination of Vicinal

Dibromides

• Vicinal dibromides are converted to alkenes by reduction with iodide ion in acetone.
• Not an important reaction, but the mechanism is similar to the E2 dehydrohalogenation reaction.

E1 Elimination Mechanism

• Tertiary and secondary alkyl halides:

3º > 2º

• Carbocation intermediate.
• Rearrangements are possible.
• Weak nucleophiles such as water or alcohols.
• Usually have S_N1 products, too, since the solvent can

attack the carbocation directly.

Dehydration of Alcohols

• Use concentrated H₂SO₄ or H₃PO₄ to shift the equilibrium and increase the yield of the reaction.
• E1 mechanism.
• Rearrangements are common.
• Reaction obeys Zaitsev’s rule.

Dehydration Mechanism: E1

Step 1: Protonation of the hydroxyl group (fast equilibrium).

Step 2: Ionization to a carbocation (slow; rate limiting).

Step 3: Deprotonation to give the alkene (fast).

Organic Chemistry,

9^th Edition L. G. Wade, Jr.

Chapter 6

Lecture

Alkyl Halides:

Nucleophilic Substitution

Classes of Alkyl Halides

H H

• Alkyl halides: Halogen H C C is directly bonded to sp³

Br

is bonded to sp² carbon

C

C

Cl

of alkene. H vinyl halide

• Aryl halides: Halogen is bonded to sp² carbon on benzene ring.

I

aryl halide

Polarity and Reactivity

• Halogens are more electronegative than C.
• Carbon—halogen bond is polar, so carbon has partial

positive charge.

• Carbon can be attacked by a nucleophile.
• Halogen can leave with the electron pair.

IUPAC Nomenclature

• Name as haloalkane (fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo)
• Choose the longest carbon chain, even if the halogen is not bonded to any of those carbons.
• Use lowest possible numbers for position.

1 2

CH^[1]CH₂F CH₃CHCH₂CH₃ CH3CH2CH2CHCH2CH2CH3

Cl

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Examples

Br

CH

3

CH₃CHCH₂CH₂CH₂CHCH₂CH₂CH₃

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6-bromo-2-methylnonane

Br

F

H

H

1

3

cis-1-bromo-3-fluorocyclohexane

Systematic Common Names

• An alkyl group is a substituent on a halide.
• Useful only for small alkyl groups.

isobutyl bromide sec-butyl bromide

CH

3

CHCH

2

CH

3

Br

CH

3

CH

2

CH

CH

3

Br

CH

3

C

CH

3

Br

CH

3

tert-butyl bromide

Alkyl Halides Classification

• Methyl halides: Halide is attached to a methyl group.
• Primary alkyl halide: Carbon to which halogen is

bonded is attached to only one other carbon.

• Secondary alkyl halide: Carbon to which halogen is

bonded is attached to two other carbons.

• Tertiary alkyl halide: Carbon to which halogen is bonded is attached to three other carbons.

Types of Dihalides

• Geminal dihalide: Two halogen atoms are bonded to the same carbon.
• Vicinal dihalide: Two halogen atoms are bonded to adjacent carbons.

Dipole Moments

• Electronegativities of the halides: F > Cl > Br > I
• Bond lengths increase as the size of the halogen increases:

C—F < C—Cl < C—Br < C—I

• Molecular dipoles depend on the geometry of the molecule.

Dipole Moments and Molecular Geometry

Notice how the four symmetrically oriented polar bonds of the carbon tetrahalides cancel to give a molecular dipole moment of zero.

Boiling Points

• Greater intermolecular forces, higher b.p.
• London forces greater for larger atoms.
• Greater molar mass, higher b.p.
• Spherical shape decreases b.p.

(CH₃)₃CBr CH₃(CH₂)₃Br

73 °C 102 °C

Densities

• Alkyl fluorides and alkyl chlorides (those with just one chlorine atom) are less dense than water (1.00 g/mL).
• Alkyl chlorides with two or more chlorine atoms are denser than water.
• All alkyl bromides and alkyl iodides are denser than water.

Reactions of Alkyl Halides

The S_N2 Reaction

• The halogen atom on the alkyl halide is replaced with the nucleophile (HO^–).
• Since the halogen is more electronegative than carbon, the C—I bond breaks heterolytically and the iodide ion leaves.

S 2 Mechanism

N

• Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (S_N2).
• Concerted reaction: New bond forming and old bond breaking at same time.
• Reaction is second order overall.
• Rate = k[alkyl halide][nucleophile].

S_N2 Energy Diagram

• The S_N2 reaction is a one-step reaction.
• Transition state is highest in energy.

Uses for S_N2 Reactions

S_N2: Nucleophilic Strength

• Stronger nucleophiles react faster.
• Strong bases are strong nucleophiles, but not all strong nucleophiles are basic.

Basicity Versus Nucleophilicity

• Basicity is defined by the equilibrium constant for abstracting a proton.
• Nucleophilicity is defined by the rate of attack on the electrophilic carbon atom

Steric hindrance (

bulkiness

)

hinders nucleophilicity

more than it hinders basicity.

Trends in Nucleophilicity

• A negatively charged nucleophile is stronger than its neutral counterpart:

• Nucleophilicity decreases from left to right:

• Increases down periodic table as the size and polarizability increase:

Polarizability Effect

Larger atoms have a soft shell that can start to overlap the carbon atom from a farther distance.

Solvent Effects: Protic Solvents

• Polar protic solvents have acidic hydrogens (O—H or

N—H) that can solvate the nucleophile, reducing their nucleophilicity.

• Nucleophilicity in protic solvents increases as the size of the atom increases.

Solvent Effects: Aprotic Solvents

• Polar aprotic solvents do not have acidic protons and therefore cannot hydrogen bond.
• Some aprotic solvents are acetonitrile, DMF, acetone, and DMSO.
• S_N2 reactions proceed faster in aprotic solvents.

Crown Ethers

• Crown ethers

solvate the cation, so the nucleophilic strength of the anion increases.

• Fluoride becomes a good nucleophile.

Leaving Group Ability

The best leaving groups are:

• Electron-withdrawing helps to polarize the carbon atom.
• Stable once they have left.
• Polarizable, help to stabilize the transition state.

Structure of Substrate in S_N2

Reactions

• Relative rates for S_N2:

CH₃X > 1° > 2° >> 3°

• Tertiary halides do not react via the S_N2 mechanism,

due to steric hindrance.

Effect of Substituents on the Rates of S_N2 Reactions

Stereochemistry of S_N2

S_N2 reactions will result in an inversion of configuration.

Back-Side Attack in the S_N2 Reaction

The S_N1 Reaction

• The S_N1 reaction is a unimolecular nucleophilic substitution.
• It has a carbocation intermediate.
• Rate = k[alkyl halide]
• Racemization occurs.

S_N1 Mechanism

Step 1: Formation of the carbocation.

Step 2: Attack of the nucleophile.

• If the nucleophile is an uncharged molecule like water or an alcohol, the positively charged product must lose a proton to give the final uncharged product.

1 Mechanism: Step 1

Formation of carbocation (rate-determining step)

1 Mechanism: Step 2

• The nucleophile attacks the carbocation, forming the product.

1 Mechanism: Step 3

• If the nucleophile was neutral, a third step (deprotonation) will be needed.

S_N1 Energy Diagram

• Forming the carbocation is an endothermic step.

• Step 2 is fast with a low activation energy.

Rates of S_N1 Reactions

• Order of reactivity follows stability of carbocations (opposite to S_N2).
• 3° > 2° > 1° >> CH₃X
• More stable carbocation requires less energy to form.
• A better leaving group will increase the rate of the reaction.

Solvent Effect

• A polar protic solvent is best used because it can solvate both ions strongly through hydrogen bonding.

Stereochemistry of S 1

N

• Carbocations are sp² hybridized and trigonal planar. The lobes of the empty p orbital are on both sides of the trigonal plane.
• Nucleophilic attack can occur from either side, producing mixtures of retention and inversion of configuration if the carbon is chiral.

Carbocation Stability

Carbocations are stabilized by inductive effect and by hyperconjugation.

Rearrangements

• Carbocations can rearrange to form a more stable carbocation.
• Move the smallest group on the adjacent carbon:
• Hydride shift: H^– on adjacent carbon moves.
• Methyl shift: CH₃^– on adjacent carbon moves.

Hydride and Methyl Shifts

• In this reaction, the methyl group on the adjacent carbon will move (along with both bonding electrons) to the primary carbon, displacing the bromide and forming a more stable tertiary carbocation.
• The smallest groups on the adjacent carbon will move: If there is a hydrogen, it will give a hydride shift.

S_N1 or S_N2 Mechanism?

Elimination Reactions

• Elimination reactions produce double bonds.
• Also called dehydrohalogenation (-HX).

The E1 Reaction

• Unimolecular elimination.
• Two groups lost: a hydrogen and the halide.
• Nucleophile acts as base.
• The E1 and S_N1 reactions have the same conditions, so a mixture of products will be obtained.

E1 Mechanism

Step 1: Ionization to form a carbocation.

Step 2: Solvent abstracts a proton to form an alkene.

A Closer Look

E1 Energy Diagram

The E1 and the S_N1 reactions have the same first step: Carbocation formation is the rate-determining step for both mechanisms.

Double Bond Substitution Patterns

tetrasubstituted trisubstituted disubstituted monosubstituted

• In elimination reactions, the major product of the reaction is the more substituted double bond: Zaitsev’s rule.
• The more substituted double bond is more stable.

Zaitsev’s Rule

• If more than one elimination product is possible, the most-substituted alkene is the major product (most stable).

major product

(trisubstituted)

E1 Competes with the S_N1

• Substitution results from nucleophilic attack on the carbocation.
• Ethanol serves as a base in the elimination and as a nucleophile in the substitution.

A Carbocation Can…

• React with a nucleophile to form a substitution product (S_N1).
• Lose a proton to form an elimination product (E1).
• Rearrange to give a more stable carbocation, then react further.

The E2 Reaction

• Elimination, bimolecular.
• Requires a strong base.
• This is a concerted reaction: The proton is abstracted, the double bond forms, and the leaving group leaves, all in one step.

The E2 Mechanism

• Order of reactivity for alkyl halides: 3°> 2 °> 1°
• Mixture may form, but Zaitsev product predominates.

E2 Stereochemistry

• The halide and the proton to be abstracted must be anti-coplanar (θ = 180º) to each other for the elimination to occur.
• The orbitals of the hydrogen atom and the halide must be aligned so they can begin to form a pi bond in the transition state.
• The anti-coplanar arrangement minimizes any steric hindrance between the base

and the leaving group.

E1 or E2 Mechanism?

Substitution or Elimination?

• Strength of the nucleophile determines order: Strong nucleophiles or bases promote bimolecular reactions.
• Primary halides usually undergo S_N2.
• Tertiary halides are a mixture of S_N1, E1, or E2. They cannot undergo S_N2.
• High temperature favors elimination.
• Bulky bases favor elimination.

Time to Practice!

• S_N2, S_N1, E2, E1 Reaction Mechanism Examples:

https://youtu.be/pKJ0z7N6W5w https://youtu.be/MrzUZSETgFc

• S_N2, S_N1, E2, E1 Practice Problem Examples:

https://youtu.be/lkcZaL3Nxps

1. 2-chlorobutane 4-(2-fluoroethyl)heptane ↑